US ARMY CORPS OF ENGINEEERS ESTABLISHED (2nd Time) – March 16, 1802

USACE Logo

On March 16, 1802, President Thomas Jefferson authorized the establishment of a military corps of engineers, which became the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers we know today. This was the second time that this corps was established.

The first idea for the army to have organized engineers took place on June 16, 1775, when the Continental Congress officially organized the army specifying that it contain a chief engineer to oversee the construction of fortifications and defenses and other such military tasks. This date might be considered the Corps’ inception.

Col. Richard Gridley, a Boston native, became Gen. George Washington’s first chief engineer. Gridley was an experienced military engineer who had done such work during the French and Indian Wars, from the capture of Louisburg (1745) to the fall of Quebec (1759). If that 1775 date seems familiar, that is because Gridley’s first mission as chief engineer was to lay out the defenses for the fortifications on Breed’s Hill where the unruly colonial rebels defied British might in the next day’s Battle of Bunker Hill.

In March of 1779, the Continental Congress authorized then Chief Engineer Brig. Gen. Louis Duportail to separate the engineers from the army at large into a corps of their own. This was the first time. By this time, Congress had recruited quite a number of military engineers from France, who were supplemented by three companies of sappers and miners formed from American troops in 1778.

US 9th Army crossing Rhine River on USACE pontoon bridge, 1945

The Corps of Engineers was mustered out of service at the end of the Revolution, along with most of the rest of the army. A flutter of war murmurings in 1794 resulted in a short-lived Corps of Artillerists and Engineers for the development of seacoast fortifications. A single regiment of engineers remained in active duty through peacetime.

Support for the 1802 legislation that ultimately established the Corps came from many directions.  During the American Revolution, officers and statesmen both recognized the need for officers skilled in technical, scientific, and mathematical trades. During the war, some effort was made to train the companies of sappers and miners in field works, but it was woefully insufficient, prompting wide support for a formal academy where officers could train for such work.  The 1802 legislation called not only for the permanent establishment of a corps of engineers, but also for the creation of an academy where soldiers could have formal education in the skills and techniques required in engineering.  West Point was chosen as that academy. Jefferson was a staunch promoter of this whole project, anticipating that such soldiers would be valuable in service to the nation during peacetime as well as during war.

As a result, today’s U. S. Army Corps of Engineers is engaged in and coordinates with both foreign and domestic war efforts, homeland security and disaster preparedness, infrastructure support (bridges, dams, and other civil and military installations), water resource management of flood zones and navigable waterways, and environmental restoration and stewardship. It is the world's largest public engineering, design and construction management agency.

Erection of Civil War signal tower, Fort Pocahontas, James River, VA

The Corps, over the past 210 years, has included and excluded various other duties, as branches have developed, diminished, or merged with other services. Among these was a Corps of Topographical Engineers which branched off in 1838, but reunited with the USACE in 1863. During the 19^th Century, the USACE coordinated with the Navy to manage the Lighthouse Districts. (My great-grandfather and some of his brothers and nephews served in the Lighthouse Service in Maine.) Lighthouses are now managed by the U. S. Coast Guard. And in the first half of the 19^th Century, Congress established a survey service for the Great Lakes (the Lake Survey), which fell under the umbrella of the Corps of Engineers.

In my Civil War reenacting portrayal of a military engineer, I have the opportunity to teach school children about this part of the army, which was quite small during the Civil War. My nutshell emphasis to them is that although the job of the rest of the army was to destroy things, the job of the engineers was to build things. I find it fascinating myself at the 19^th Century application of mathematics and physics to solve problems in the field, under conditions usually remote from the ideal and often with limited resources. These solutions were often very simple, and often ingenious. This corps deserves more recognition than it gets.

SOURCES:

U. S. Army Corps of Engineers http://www.usace.army.mil/About/History/HistoricalVignettes/HolidaysObservances/015EstablishmentofUSACE.aspx

Wikipedia: US Army Corps of Engineers  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Army_Corps_of_Engineers

PHOTOS:

Logo: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers http://www.nau.usace.army.mil/

Pontoon bridge: U.S. Army Corp of Engineers Digital Visual Library http://images.usace.army.mil/Main.html

Signal tower: at Fort Pocahontas on the James River, Charles City County, VA, May 2002, by Sally M. Chetwynd

NATIVE AMERICAN VICE PRESIDENT INAUGURATED – March 4, 1929

Charles Curtis (1860-1939)

 On March 4, 1929, a Native American was inaugurated as Vice President of the United States. Charles Curtis served one term with President Herbert Hoover.

Curtis was born on January 25, 1860, in North Topeka, in what was then the Kansas Territory. His mother was three-quarters Native American, of ethnic Kaw, Osage, and Pottawatomie ancestry. His great-great-grandfather, White Plume of the Kaw nation, had assisted the Lewis and Clark Expedition in 1804. From the Kaw, we get the name “Kansas.” Curtis spoke French and Kaw before he learned English.

When he was five years old, Curtis’ mother died, and his father left him with his mother’s parents on the Kaw Reservation in Morris County, Kansas.  He spent three years with his maternal grandparents, then went to live with his paternal grandparents in Topeka. Both sets of grandparents urged him to obtain a formal education, lest he become nothing more than another suppressed Indian eking out a hardscrabble existence on an underfunded reservation.

His childhood and early adult life were varied. These were the days, still, of “wild” Indian raids and frontier rivalries, both between whites and Indians and between Indian tribes. He learned to ride bareback, to use the bow and arrow with deadly accuracy (shooting at coins to entertain white visitors), and other activities typical to Plains Indian life.

By ten, he was an accomplished horseman and was working in a livery stable.  By sixteen, he raced horses on Kansas racetracks, and at the time was considered the best jockey of all time.  Still in his teens, he became a reporter for the North Topeka Times. While driving a hack (horse-drawn taxi). he studied law, and was admitted to the bar when he was twenty-one. He began his legal practice with a fellow attorney.

He served two terms in the elected position of Shawnee County Prosecuting Attorney.  At age 32, he ran for the US House of Representatives on the Republican ticket, and served seven terms.  In 1907, he was elected to the US Senate, where he served 3 terms with distinction.  He was the first Republican to become Floor Leader of the US Senate, and at one point was a presidential hopeful.

In the midst of this busy life, he found time to court and marry Anna Elizabeth Baird, with whom he had two daughters and a son.  Anna died in 1924. Curtis’ half-sister Theresa Permelia Curtis Gann, fondly known as Dolly, also made her home with Charles and Anna’s family.

Wah-Shun-Gah, Kaw chief, c.1900

Curtis’ political interests and causes were broad and civic-minded.  Among many other issues, Curtis supported the Woman Suffrage Amendment (Kansas women received the vote in 1912); the Soldier’s Adjusted Compensation Bill (for WWI veterans); the Anti Child Labor Amendment; anti-narcotic legislation; bills which protected the rights of Native American women and which made Native Americans citizens of the US; parts of the Tariff Act to protect farm interests, plans to benefit wheat growers whose crops failed, and the Hepburn railroad bill which eliminated discrimination against farmers; Farm Loan Bonds which offered low-interest loans to farmers; and the consolidation of the US ports of entry to streamline the collection of customs. He held more Senate Committee assignments than any previous Senator.

Senator William Borah (R-Idaho) described his contemporary, Curtis, as “a great reconciler, a walking political encyclopedia, and one of the best poker players in America.”  The American Mercury described him as “the greatest whisperer in Congress.” This was typical of Curtis, not to be loud and obstreperous but to cajole and convince, to attract more bees with honey than vinegar.

Curtis became Herbert Hoover’s running mate in Hoover’s 1928 bid for the White House, which the team won in a landslide. Unfortunately, Curtis’ dynamic dedication in the US Congress did not carry him far as Vice President. Like most vice presidents, he was generally ignored, never consulted, and often lampooned. The Republican ticket had been a “marriage of convenience,” and there was no love lost between the two candidates.  Hoover’s deliberate alienation of Curtis was not entirely unfounded: the two had a history of political disagreements. Curtis found himself, typically, shelved.

Since Curtis was a widower upon his election to the vice-presidency, he asked his half-sister Dolly to come live at his Washington residence. She served as hostess for the social events required of the Vice President.

Curtis made the most of his position as vice president.  He presided over the Senate on a regular basis. He displayed artifacts from his Kaw, Osage, and Pottawatomie culture in his offices, and was rightfully proud to be the first Native American to reach such high office.

After five decades of public service, Curtis’ youthful vigor faded, his innovation dimmed, his resiliency stiffened. He was 69 on Inauguration Day. During his term with Hoover, the Washington press of long duration noted that he wasn’t the man he had been. He had hardened and become shrill and querulous, demanding and pompous. His behavior during the “Bonus March” can only be attributed to this ossified and eroded personality, not to the political dynamo he had been for the bulk of his career.

A group of World War I veterans converged on Washington in July 1932, calling themselves the “Bonus March,” seeking to embarrass Washington into issuing them their promised bonuses for service. When the four hundred arrived at the White House, Curtis made a panicky request of the president, asking him to call out the army to arrest them as they paraded in single-file around the building. When Hoover didn’t comply, Curtis contacted the Marines directly, who sent out two companies in trench helmets, riding on the city trolleys to the White House. The story went public, and the press heaped derision on Curtis’ head. He became a national laughingstock.

Hoover and Curtis served only one presidential term. With the inauguration of the Great Depression, the Hoover administration was doomed. The disaster of the bonus march was just one more log on its funeral pyre.

When he left public service at the termination of the Hoover administration, Curtis decided to remain in Washington, DC, where he renewed his legal career.  He died three years later, at age 76, on February 8, 1936, from a heart attack.

Despite the setbacks, disappointments, and frustrations of the last leg of his public service career, his contributions over the course of fifty years cannot be diminished. Charles Curtis was all American, in every sense of the word.

SOURCES

Charles Curtis: Native-American Indian Vice-President  http://www.vpcharlescurtis.net/

Wikipedia: Charles Curtis http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Curtis

United States Senate: Charles Curtis, 31^st Vice President (1929-1933) http://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/common/generic/VP_Charles_Curtis.htm

Dorman, Michael, The Second Man: The Changing Role of the Vice Presidency, New York: Delacorte Press, 1968.

Harwood, Michael, In the Shadow of Presidents, Philadelphia, New York: J. B. Lippincott Company, 1966.

PHOTOS

Charles Curtis:  photo from Library of Congress, via Biographical Directory of the United States Congress: Charles Curtis (1860-1936) http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=c001008

Wah-Shun-Gah, Kaw Chief, c. 1900: photo from Chapman, Berlin B., “Charles Curtis and the Kaw Reservation,” Kansas Historical Quarterly, Topeka, KS: Kansas Historical Society, November 1947  http://www.kshs.org/p/kansas-historical-quarterly-charles-curtis-and-the-kaw-reservation/13069

ANOTHER DELAY

I'm back again, finally, after a promise of more regular posts. I actually have something of an excuse this time, though, which might qualify as valid. (If it doesn't, well, that's too bad. It's the only one I have.) I was hired to do five months of at-home work, but I had to go for ten days for training in the Washington, DC, area, with a team of seventeen others. We are doing real property asset inventory for the US Coast Guard. In effect, if we do our job and get all of the real property assets inventoried correctly on each USCG site, station, or base, then these assets can be financially assessed accurately. Then if a tornado wiped out a site entirely, these assessment records would allow for adequate budgeting for replacement of all of the facilities on the site. (If the financial office doesn't know that the base built a new mess hall last year, it's not going to pay to replace it.)

Training days were twelve hours long, and where the team was stationed, in guest housing on a US Coast Guard base, we had no access to the internet except in one of the rooms through a wi-fi hot-spot on one guy's cell phone, onto which those who had brought their laptops would take turns glomming onto to check home emails and such business. Then I spent the bulk of last week getting settled again at home.

The subject of today's blog post drew my interest, since we hear very little about Native Americans in prominent political positions. Immediately to follow is a post about Charles Curtis, one such Native American.

STEEL-HULL BARK “DIRIGO” LAUNCHED - February 10, 1894

The sail-driven maritime freight trade was entering the autumn of its era when the Dirigo slid down the ways on February 10, 1894.  Three hundred and fourteen feet long, built to carry four masts that reached 200 feet above her decks, weighing in at 3005 tons, she made a spectacular splash as she crashed into the waters of the Kennebec River in Bath, ME, her sleek black hull gleaming in contrast to the snowy riverbanks.

Dirigo, circa 1910-1915 (Plummer/Beaton photographic collection (courtesy of San Francisco Maritime National Historical Park)

Tens of thousands of coasting schooners (rigged fore-&-aft, many with centerboards – as opposed to fixed keels - for access to shallow waters) had plied the waters of the East Coast, the West Coast, and the Gulf of Mexico since the late 18^th Century, and square-rigged China trade ships had crossed the oceans all over the world for just as long. But all of these sailing predecessors were wooden-hulled ships. Dirigo, a Latin word meaning “I lead” and the State of Maine’s motto, was the first steel-hulled sailing vessel built in the United States. With the construction of Dirigo, A. Sewall & Co. led wooden shipbuilding into the steel age, to much public acclaim.

Arthur Sewall – the man who had built her - hoped that she’d live up to her name and pay for herself. Times were tough as a depression settled on the economy, and no one could afford to have cargo ships lying idle.  Dirigo was designed by J.F. Waddington of Liverpool, England, and she cost $157,000 to build. The steel plates for her hull were produced by Messrs. David Clolville & Sons, and came all the way from Motherwell, Scotland.

To a degree, Dirigo did pay for herself. After she was launched, the tugboat C. W. Morse towed her to Philadelphia, where she was outfitted as a square-rigger.  She was laden with a cargo of 121,000 cases of oil bound for Japan, captained by an old friend of the Sewall family, George W. Goodwin of Calais, ME.  Initially her speed was not outstanding, a concern with the growing competition from steam-driven ships, but as the captain and crew became familiar with the new ship, her efficiency improved, although she was never swift. Goodwin made suggestions for several improvements, but in general was pleased with the way she handled.

Sewall had a dream that within his lifetime, he would see powerful shipyards on the Kennebec River producing the finest steel ships in the world. He did not live to see that dream entirely fulfilled, for his shipyard was the only one in the US to switch to steel. He died in 1900, only six years after Dirigo launched.  Four years after Dirigo, Sewall launched her sister ship, Erskine W. Phelps, to equal fanfare. Evidently Sewall had found the investment in Dirigo profitable.

She did acquire a little claim to fame. In February of 1912, Jack London and his wife Charmian boarded the Dirigo in Baltimore, for a trip around Cape Horn. They sailed to Seattle and returned home in August.

Dirigo had several captains over her 23-year lifetime:

1894-1902  Captain George W. Goodwin, Calais, ME

1903-1904  Captain Lewis S. Colley

1904-1909  Captain George W. Goodwin.

1909-1911  Captain Omar E. Chapman.

1911-1917  Captain Walter M. Mallett.

1917  Captain John A. Urquhart, Brooklyn, NY.

Dirigo remained in Sewall’s fleet until 1915, when G. W. McNear, Inc., in San Francisco bought her. This firm engaged in shipping oil and grain. She worked in Pacific waters for a while, but McNear didn’t hold her for long: she was sold again in March 1916 to C.C. Mengel & Brother, Inc., of Louisville, KY, a lumber company, and then again that November to Axim Transportation Co. of Anchorage, AK, which used Pensacola, FL, as a homeport.  She worked out of that port for six months. Then on May 31, 1917, she sank about 6 miles southwest of the Eddystone Rocks off the coast of Plymouth, England, the victim of torpedoes launched by German submarine UB-23 (the Hans Ewald Niemer). One life was lost.

(Another vessel contemporary to our square-rigged sailing bark Dirigo was an ocean-going passenger steamship also named Dirigo, built in 1898 at Hoquiam (Gray’s Harbor, about 40 miles west of Olympia, Washington) and used in the Alaska trade during the Klondike Gold Rush.  In several photographs dating from 1898, she is shown moored at the docks in Skagway, District of Alaska. These are two separate vessels.)

A few other photographs of Dirigo exist, but most of them are copyrighted against any use without permission. You can see some at Maine Memory Network, a project of the Maine Historical Society which provides an online museum and database. http://www.mainememory.net/artifact/8864

SOURCES
Yakowicz, Susie, “Steel Glory: The Life of Shipbuilder Arthur Sewall (1835-1900)” www.susieyakowicz.com

Emanuels, George, “Early California Voyages” http://www2.cruzio.com/~emanuels/voyages.htm

Wreck Site   http://www.wrecksite.eu/casualty-list.aspx?nat=0

Vintage Maine Images http://www.vintagemaineimages.com/bin/Detail?ln=8864, also part of the Maine Historical Society http://www.mainehistory.org/ and associated with the Maine Maritime Museum http://www.mainemaritimemuseum.org/

The Maritime History Virtual Archives  http://www.bruzelius.info/Nautica/Ships/Fourmast_ships/Dirigo%281894%29.html
Dirigo

Maine Memory Network, a project of the Maine Historical Society http://www.mainememory.net/artifact/8864

FUNERAL FOR LINCOLN’S SON EDDY - February 2, 1850

Edward Baker Lincoln (1846-1850)

On February 2, 1850, Abraham and Mary Lincoln stood in Hutchinson Cemetery in Springfield, IL, and bade farewell to the younger of their “dear codgers,” 3-year-old Eddy, who had died the day before after a 52-day struggle with an illness. As the small coffin sank into the wintery grave, the little family, reduced to three, sank into an equally wintery grief.

Because Eddy was so young when he died, not much is known of him. He was born on March 10, 1846, and named after Edward Dickinson Baker, a US senator and former law partner of Lincoln. (Baker was the only sitting senator to be killed in battle while serving as a Union officer.) Lincoln reported to a friend eight months after Eddy’s birth that the baby compared favorably to his big brother at the same age, but was “of a longer order” (taking after his lanky father) than Bobby, who was “short and low” (like his mother).

Eddy is reported to have been a sweet child, precocious and talkative. He wasn’t quite two when in late 1847 the family traveled, by train and steamboat, to Washington City for Lincoln to serve in the US House of Representatives. During Lincoln’s term, the toddler often referred to his father as having “gone tapila,” baby language which his parents took to mean “gone to the Capitol [Building].”

Mary discovered after a few months that life in a few rented rooms across from the Capitol was far from the ideal she had imagined. In Springfield, the status of the wife of a Congressman had powerful, unique standing; in Washington, she was just one more freshman Congressman's wife among dozens. In the spring of 1848, she took the children, Robert (4) and Edward (2), to her family’s home in Lexington, KY. The Todd homestead proved to be an environment far more suited to active youngsters than Mrs. Spriggs’ cramped boarding house on Capitol Hill.

Eddy took after his father in his love for animals.  Writing from Lexington to Lincoln in Washington, Mary relates in May 1848 that Bobby brought a kitten home (“your hobby,” she emphasizes to her husband) which delighted Eddy.  The toddler fell upon the orphan feline with utmost tenderness, insisting that water be brought for it. He hand-fed the kitten with crumbs of bread. When his grandmother (who hated cats) spied the kitten, she had a servant throw it out immediately, deaf to Eddy’s shrieks of outrage.

The Lincolns lavished love and affection upon their children, disregarding discipline and indulging their passions. They called the boys their “blessed fellows” and “dear codgers.”

Eddy was not a robust child. He was prone to sickness. He fell ill in December 1848 while Mary and the children were still at her family’s home in Kentucky. Mary left Bobby behind and took Eddy home to Springfield to nurse him.

A year later in early December of 1849, Eddy came down again with a serious illness, marked by a high fever, brutal coughing fits, and overall exhaustion. It snuffed out his short life within fifty-two days.  Although no one knows for sure, historians speculate that the illness was either diphtheria or pulmonary tuberculosis, also known as consumption. (One online Lincoln research site states that in 1850, consumption killed more Americans than any other disease).

Life after Eddy’s death was nearly unbearable for Mary Lincoln, who mourned throughout most of her third pregnancy. The December 1850 birth of their third son, William Wallace Lincoln, was one factor that helped pull Mary out of her slump. Another which helped her re-emerge into the world after the funeral was the regular attendance that the little family soon took up at Springfield’s First Presbyterian Church. The pastor, Dr. James Smith, had conducted Eddy’s funeral service.  His ministry and wisdom provided Mary with the strength to look to the future. Lincoln benefited from Smith’s work as well, and a deep friendship developed between the Lincolns and Dr. Smith.

Eddy's original gravestone

But the death deeply and permanently marked Mary. Her former bubbly nature succumbed to a hardening personality, and she refused to relinquish any shred of connection with her little boy. With the death of her mother when she was only six years old began a pattern which became tragically familiar over the course of her life. By the time she died in 1882, she had lost two more of her four sons and had seen her husband killed before her eyes. To assuage these strains, she delved further into spiritual matters, skirting the fringes of madness. By 1863, she engaged regularly in séances to contact her sons on the other side. She frightened her younger half-sister Emilie Helm with animated, intense, trance-like descriptions of dreams she had of Willie and Eddy coming in the company of her deceased half-brother Aleck to comfort her. Such tragedy in the life of a woman with an rock-bound core of emotional control would have shaken her foundation; in the life of one whose emotional stability was compromised from the start, it’s a wonder that Mary Lincoln did not go mad.

A few days after Eddy’s funeral, a four-stanza poem about his death appeared in the Illinois State Journal, author unnamed. The last line of the poem ("Of such is the kingdom of Heaven") was etched on Eddy’s gravestone. Most historians guess that Mary or Abraham Lincoln penned the poem; perhaps they both worked on it.

Little Eddy lay in the Hutchinson Cemetery until 1865, when he was relocated to the Oak Ridge Cemetery to be with his father and his brother Willie whose bodies were brought from Washington after Lincoln’s assassination. In the Lincoln Tomb today rest Lincoln and Mary, with their three youngest sons – Eddy, Willie, and Tad (given name: Thomas). Oldest son Robert, the only son to live into adulthood, is buried at Arlington National Cemetery. Eddy's original gravestone is on display at the Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library & Museum in Springfield.

SOURCES
Lincoln, Abraham, The Collected Works of Abraham Lincoln, Roy P. Basler, editor, Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick, NJ, 1955.

Turner, Justin G. and Linda Levitt Turner, Mary Todd Lincoln, Her Life and Letters, Alfred A. Knopf, New York, NY, 1972.

Randall, Ruth Painter, Lincoln’s Sons, Little, Brown and Company, Boston, MA, 1955.

Emery, Tom, Eddie: Lincoln's Forgotten Son, History in Print, Carlinville, Illinois, 2002.

Edward Dickinson Baker http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Dickinson_Baker

Wheeler, Samuel P., Lincoln Studies: Abraham Lincoln and the American Civil War, http://lincolnstudies.blogspot.com/2008/03/edward-baker-lincoln.html

Emerson, Jason, The Madness of Mary Lincoln, Southern Illinois University Press, 2007.

Abraham Lincoln Research Site, Eddie Lincoln, by Roger J. Norton http://rogerjnorton.com/Lincoln67.html